The modern day Afghanistan with 99.7% Muslim population was once known for being the abode of various religions and civilizations including Hinduism, Buddhism, Hellenism, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity and many others. The various religious groups of Afghanistan practised their faith for over 2,000 years without any fear. Then came the wrath of Islam engulfing every other religion in the next 1,300 years. A country which was worldwide famous for its art and civilization has today turned into a terrorists’ haven. The invasion, violence and plunder by Jihadis led to the vanishing of several flourishing civilizations and today it has turned into a den for Islamic terrorism.
Important timeline
Urban civilization began as early as 3000 BCE
Zoroastrianism probably originated in Afghanistan, between 1800 and 800 BCE
First Persian empire, the Achaemenids, brought down the Medes (ancient Persian people)
Arachosia, around Kandahar in modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian
Arachosia is considered the second homeland of Zoroastrianism
Alexander and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia
The successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the region until 305 BCE
Mauryans controlled the area south of the Hindu Kush until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE
Hellenistic reconquest by the Greco-Bactrians after the downfall of Mauryas
Greco-Bactrians became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom
Indo-Greek Kingdom were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE
Presence of Hinduism and Buddhism in Afghanistan
Before the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan, communities of various religious and ethnic backgrounds lived in the land. Zunbil and Kabul Shahi rulers ruled south of the Hindu Kush. When the Chinese travellers (Faxian, Song Yun, Xuanzang, Wang-hiuon-tso, Huan-Tchao, and Wou-Kong) visited Afghanistan between 399 and 751 AD, they mentioned that Buddhism was practiced in different areas between the Amu Darya (Oxus River) in the north and the Indus River in the south. During these visits, Kushans and later on Hephthalites ruled the land. The Hephthalites were staunch followers of the god Surya.
Hindu and Buddhist era
In the mid-to-late first century CE, the vast Kushan Empire became a great contributor of Buddhist culture. This resulted in Buddhism flourishing throughout the region. In the 7th century, Buddhist Turk Shahi ruled the region. The Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty called Hindu Shahi. In 870, the Saffarids Muslims conquered the area. However, a large part of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by Buddhist culture.
Archaeological evidences
There are numerous archaeological evidences that is enough to prove that long before the Islamic invaders started plunder in the name of Islam, there existed Buddhism and Hinduism in all its glory. Several architectural marvels and statues have time and again proved the enormity of both the religions in Afghanistan. Buddhas of Bamyan among them is a UNESCO world heritage site.
Culture and language of Islamic Afghanistan
Once a melting pot of different cultures, Afghanistan since the 11th century has completely adopted Islamic culture. It is evident from the 99.7% Muslim population of Afghanistan. Let’s have a look at the cultures prevailing in Islamic Afghanistan.
Afghanistan is a predominantly tribal society
Different regions of the country have their own cultures as a result of differing ethnicities and geographic obstacles
In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali (the Pashtun way)
The Pashtuns (and Baloch) are largely connected to the culture of South Asia.
Remaining Afghans culturally Persian and Turkic
Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called Pashtunization
Some Pashtuns have been Persianized
Strongly religious
2–3 million nomads
Bacha bazi, a term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys
Child marriage is prevalent in Afghanistan
Legal age for marriage is 16
Groom is often expected to pay a bride price
Villages typically have a headman (malik), a master for water distribution (mirab) and a religious teacher (mullah)
Afghan clothing for both men and women typically consists of various forms of shalwar kameez, especially perahan tunban and khet partug
Women normally wears a chador for head covering
Some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear the burqa
Another popular dress is the chapan which acts as a coat.
The karakul is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep.
Dari and Pashto are the official languages of Afghanistan
Art & Painting
Pre-Islamic Afghanistan used to be a hotbed of various art forms. A number of historic artifacts have been found in Afghanistan which relate to Greco-Iranian tradition, the Bactrians and then the Kushan. Several statues of Hindu deities have been found in recent times.
Small, simple clay statues from the Neolithic period found in places such as Mondīgak
Inspired by the Greco-Iranian tradition, the Bactrians and then the Kushans and their successors made the portraiture of sovereigns on coins an important art form and an inexhaustible source of historical data
Royal portraits can be found carved on the thresholds of stone temples and painted on the walls of sanctuaries
Western influence began during the conquests of Cyrus and Darius I in the 5th and 6th centuries B.C.
Their influence is visible in sculpture (pseudo-Corinthian pilasters, figured capitals, garland and scroll patterns)
Their influence is visible in painting, where the decorative elements of stone grottos owe a great deal to Sasanian art.
From the first century A.D. Buddhist monks from the Ganges region in India created an ever-increasing demand for icons and sculpted and painted decoration for their monasteries.
The treasure of Bagram, dating from the 1st-2nd centuries A.D., was discovered in 1937-39 by J. Hackin and his team.
It contained glassware, bronze statuettes and vessels, and plaster casts of Hellenistic themes
The city of Āy Ḵānom embraces temples and tombs, a large palace, a gymnasium and palestra, and the only ancient theater
One of the statues is considered that of the great Kushan king Kanishka, because of its resemblance to a statue inscribed with his name in the Mathura museum.
Monasteries proliferated around the present-day village of Hadda and on the cliffs bordering the Kabul river.
Resembling the monasteries of Gandhāra in their plans, they are constructed from schist, limestone, or clay, and decorated with painted and modeled clay and, above all, stucco.
The rupestral monasteries in the valley of Bāmīān are located at the heart of the Hindu Kush.
Influences from Sasanian Iran and the later Indian culture of Gandhāra and the post-Gupta period are clearly in evidence.
In 1980 an impressive statue of the Indian god Sūrya accidentally came to light.
Architectural influence
Afghan cities have been rebuilt and stretched beyond their pre-warfare condition up to 1978 since the formation of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in 2001. For several thousand years, architects within Afghanistan have been influenced by cultures across Eurasia.
For millennia, Afghanistan has been a crossroads of civilizations. Even today, it consists of cultural influences from the Achaemenid, Persian, Greek, Buddhist, Hindu and Muslim civilizations. Over time successive cultures are described by means of alterations in Afghan architecture. By means of varied uses of symbols, designs, and materials, each new civilization described itself differently.
For instance, the architecture of the Kushan Empire also reflected direct Greek influence, as well as synthesis of local customs. At the time of the Kushan empire, a temple on the tip of the hill on the slope was built in Sheberghan. The hill is completely dug by an enormous staircase of 55m long and seven meter wide.
The Buddhist civilization of Gandhara arose during the first century in modern eastern Afghanistan and the Punjab. From this period, archaeologists have found the stupas of Koundjaki and Chewaki, and minaret of Tchakari.
The Hellenistic Age
Alexander, in 336 BC, became the leader of the Greek kingdom of Macedonia. By the time Alexander died 13 years later, he had built an empire that stretched from Greece all the way to India. This helped in expanding the Greek ideas and culture from the Eastern Mediterranean to Asia. This era is known as the “Hellenistic period.” (The word “Hellenistic” originated from the word Hellazein, which means “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.”) It lasted from the death of Alexander in 323 BC until 31 BC, when Roman troops conquered the last of the territories that the Macedonian king had once ruled.
After the death of Alexander, his generals (known as the Diadochoi) split his conquered lands amongst themselves. Those parts of the Alexandrian empire had soon become three powerful dynasties: the Seleucids of Syria and Persia, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Antigonids of Greece and Macedonia.
These dynasties were not politically aligned. This is because no longer were they part of any Greek or Macedonian empire after Alexander’s death. Despite this, they shared a great deal in common. It is these resemblances, the vital “Greek-ness” of the heterogenous parts of the Alexandrian world that historians point to while talking about the Hellenistic Age.
Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire was known for its multi-cultural and multi-religious identity. For hundreds of years, it harboured Greek culture and in the later part of its reign, the rulers of the empire associated themselves with Buddhism and Hinduism.
Hinduism
The Kushan religious pantheon is extremely varied. This is evident by their coins that were made in gold, silver, and copper. After Huvishka, we see only two divinities appearing on the coins: Ardoxsho and Oesho.
Three-faced Oesho on coin of Huvishka, with traditional attributes: thunder (vajra), trident, club (Daṇḍa), vase. Bactrian legend Οηϸο
The Hindu entities represented on coinage include:
Maaseno (Mαασηνo): Mahāsena
Skando-Komaro (Σκανδo-koμαρo): Skanda-Kumara
Bizago: Viśākha
Ommo: Umā, the consort of Siva
Oesho (Οηϸο): long considered to represent Indic Shiva
Two copper coins of Huvishka bear a 'Ganesa' legend. Nevertheless, in place of depicting the typical zoomorphic figure of Ganesha, they possess a figure of an archer holding a full-length bow with string inwards and an arrow. Typically this is a display of Rudra, but in the case of these two coins it is likely to depict Shiva.
The great Kushan emperor Vima Kadphises embraced Shaivism (a sect of Hinduism). This is evident by coins minted during his period. Most of Vima's coins feature the Buddhist symbol of the Triratna on the reverse (or possibly Shiva's symbol for Nandi, the Nandipada), together with Hindu depictions of Shiva, with or without his bull. Many times, a Trishul is represented along with Shiva.
Buddhism
The Kushans assumed the Greco-Buddhist traditions of the Indo-Greek Kingdom they replaced. Their support to Buddhist institutions helped them to grow as a commercial power. Kanishka is regarded by Buddhism for he convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. Buddhism considers Kanishka as one of greatest benefactors similar to Menander I (Milinda).
During the 1st century AD, monks and their trader supporters produced buddhist books. Apart from this, monasteries were being formed along these land routes that traversed from China and other regions of Asia. The development of Buddhist books led to the creation of a new written language known as Gandhara.
The rule of Huvishka relates to the first known epigraphic evidence of the Buddha Amitabha, on the bottom part of a 2nd-century statue which has been found in Govindo-Nagar, and now at the Mathura Museum. The statue is dated to "the 28th year of the reign of Huvishka", and dedicated to "Amitabha Buddha" by a family of merchants. Huvishka himself was a follower of Mahayana Buddhism. A Sanskrit manuscript fragment in the Schøyen Collection depicts Huvishka as one who has "set forth in the Mahāyāna."
Gandhara Empire
Gandhāra kingdom once located in north-western India in what is now Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Found mainly in the valley of Peshawar, the Potohar plateau and on the Kabul River, its main cities were Purushapura (modern Peshawar), and Takshashila (Taxila).
The Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from around the sixth century B.C.E. to the eleventh century C.E. Under the Buddhist Kushan Kings, it reached its pinnacle from the first century to the fifth century. The name Gandhara vanished after Mahmud of Ghazni conquered it in 1021 CE. The area was run from Lahore or from Kabul during the Muslim period. Gandhara became famous for its amalgamation of Greek and Buddhist culture after Alexander invaded the north-western India. This can be witnessed in its treasures of Greco-Buddhist art including the famous Bamyan Buddhas. From the fifth century B.C.E. to the second century, Taxila was a vital Hindu and Buddhist center of learning. It was one of the greatest monastic-universities of the ancient world.
Geographical location
Throughout history the boundaries of Gandhara kept changing. Sometimes the Peshawar valley and Taxila were collectively called Gandhara. Also, sometimes the Swat valley (Sanskrit: Suvāstu) was also considered a part of it. However, the center of Gandhara was always the Peshawar valley. The kingdom was ruled from capitals at Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Taxila, Purushapura (Peshawar). In its commencing years, the kingdom was ruled from Udabhandapura (Hund) on the Indus.
Sometimes the Gandhara kingdom also comprised Kashmir. At one time, as per Gandhara Jataka (Jataka No 406), Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmir.
The primary cities of Gandhara were Purushapura (now Peshawar), Takshashila (or Taxila) and Pushkalavati. In the second century CE, the capital of Gandhara became Purushapura (Peshawar). Before Purushapura, Pushkalavati was the capital from the sixth century BCE to the second century CE. In the Peshawar Valley, Pushkalavati is located at the confluence of the Swat and Kabul rivers, where three different branches of the River Kabul meet.
Gandhara under the Mauryas
Chandragupta, the founder of Mauryan dynasty lived in Taxila when Alexander captured this city
Chandragupta met Kautilya in Taxila
Chandragupta used Gandhra as his base and led a rebellion against the Magadha Empire
In 321 BCE, he ascended the throne at Magadha capital Pataliputra
He also acquired Gandhara from the Greeks
In 305 BCE, he led a successful battle against Seleucus Nicator, who was Alexander's successor in Asia
He stretched his domains up to Southern Afghanistan
Gandhara prospered as a center of trade after the completion of the Grand Trunk Road
Four almost 150 years, Gandhara remained a part of the Mauryan Empire
Similar to his grandfather Chandragupta, Ashoka began his career from Gandhara as a governor
After becoming a Buddhist, he built many stupas in Gandhara
Mauryan control over the northwestern frontier is attested from the Rock Edicts left by Ashoka
Often, Gandhara was connected politically with the neighboring regions of Kashmir and Kamboja.
The golden age of Kushan Rule
The Golden Period of Gandhara arrived during the Kushans. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are full of ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. To commemorate the Jataka tales, a number of monuments were created. Around 75 CE, Kushans (Yueh-Chih in China), one of the Central Asian tribes, gained control of Gandhara and several parts of today’s Pakistan under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises. Before this, they lived in Bactria for almost a century.
The Gandhara civilization peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king Kanishka (128-151 C.E.). The cities of Taxila at Sirsukh and Peshawar were built. Peshawar became the capital of a great empire stretching from Bengal to Central Asia. Kanishka was a great patron of the Buddhist faith; Buddhism spread to Central Asia and the Far East across Bactria and Sogdia, where his empire met the Han Empire of China. Buddhist art spread from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. Under Kanishka, Gandhara became a holy land of Buddhism and attracted Chinese pilgrims to see monuments associated with many Jataka tales.
In Gandhara, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form. Under the Kushans new Buddhists stupas were built and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides. Kanishka also built a great tower to a height of 400 feet at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Fa-Hsien, Sun-Yun, and Hsuan-Tsang. This structure was destroyed and rebuilt many times until it was finally destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in the eleventh century.
After Kanishka, the empire started losing territories in the east. In the west, Gandhara came under the Sassanid, the successor state of the Parthians, and became their vassal from 241-450 C.E.
Gandhara after invasion by the Huns
Around 450 CE, the Hepthalite Huns captured Gandhara but they did not endorse Buddhism. Gandhara Civilization declined during their reign, however, Hinduism was revived. Huns’ power base in Central Asia was destroyed by the Sassanids who were helped by Turks. In 568 CE, Gandhara came under Persian control. In 644 CE, Muslim Arabs defeated the Sassanids. At this time, Buddhist Turks ruled Gandhara along with Kabul.
Gandhara under Turkishahi and Hindushahi
Afghanistan and Gandhara came under pressure from Muslims after the fall of the Sassanid Empire to the Arabs in 644 CE. Arabs conquered Kabul in 1665 and TurkShahi ruled Gandhara from Kabul for next 200 years. According to various Muslim records, the Turkshahi were conquered by the Hindushahi in 870 CE. As per Al-Biruni (973-1048 CE), Kallar, a Brahmin minister of the Turkshahi, founded the Hindushahi dynasty in 843 CE. The dynasty ruled from Kabul, later moved their capital to Udabhandapura. Throughout their kingdoms they built great temples. In the Salt Range of the Punjab, some of these temples are still in good condition.
Jayapala was the last great king of this dynasty. His empire extended from west of Kabul to the river Sutlej. Nevertheless, the expansion of the Gandhara kingdom ran parallel to the rise of the Ghaznavid Empire under Sabuktigin. Unfortunately Jayapala committed suicide after facing defeats twice by Sabuktigin and then by Mahmud of Ghazni in the Kabul valley. Jayapal’s son Anandapal relocated his capital near Nandana in the Salt Range. Trilocanapala, the last king of this country, was assassinated by his own troops in 1021. This led to the end of Gandhara. Later on, some Shahi princes moved to Kashmir.
By the time Gandhara had been engulfed into the empire of Mahmud of Ghazni, Buddhist buildings were already destroyed and Gandhara art had been forgotten. In 1151, the Kashmiri writer Kalhaṇa wrote his book Rajatarangini. He gave details about its last royal dynasty of Gandhara and its capital Udabhandapura.
Influence
Gandhara became famous for its unique Gandhāra style of Buddhist art. It was the outcome of the amalgamation of Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian art traditions. This art form started developing in Parthian Period (50 B.C.E.–75 C.E.).
Mughal influence
Invasion of Kandahar by Babur
In 1504, Babur invaded Kabul and took control over it. At that time, it was under the control of the Arghuns rulers of Kandahar. He attacked Kandahar in 1507. He gave the charge of Kandahar to his own brother Nasir Mirza, who lost Badakhshan and himself left Kandahar. After a short time Kandahar was taken by the Uzbeks. It was at last in 1522 that Babur captured Kandahar and appointed his own son Mirza Kamran there.
Taliban taking over
The Taliban is a primarily Pashtun, Islamic fundamentalist group that ruled Afghanistan from 1996 until 2001, when a US-led invasion toppled the regime on account of providing refuge to al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden. The Taliban regrouped across the border in Pakistan and has led an insurgency against the U.S.-backed government in Kabul for more than nineteen years.
In 2020, the Taliban signed a peace agreement with the United States and entered into power-sharing negotiations with the Afghan government. However, the Taliban continues to launch attacks against government and civilian targets and controls dozens of Afghan districts. The intra-Afghan talks have mostly stalled, raising questions about whether U.S. troops will stay in Afghanistan. According to many analysts, violence could mount dramatically in 2021. They are also of the view that the peace process could collapse, heightening the probability of an expanded civil war, casualties, and activities by terrorist groups.
How was the Taliban formed?
In the early 1990s, Afghan mujahideen formed the group. Having the covert support of the CIA and ISI, Taliban had resisted the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (1979–89). Younger Pashtun tribesmen who studied in Pakistani madrassas also joined them. By September 1996, Taliban seized the capital Kabul from President Burhanuddin Rabbani whom it viewed as anti-Pashtun. That year, with Mullah Mohammed Omar, the Taliban declared Afghanistan an Islamic emirate. Prior to its overthrow in 2001, the regime controlled some 90 percent of Afghanistan.
As it consolidated territorial control, the Taliban imposed a harsh brand of justice. It wanted women to wear the head-to-toe burqa, or chadri. Apart from this, it banned music and television; and jailed men whose beards it deemed too short.
Islamic conquest of Afghanistan
During the conclusion of Muslim conquest of Persia, the region around Herat Province became Islamized in 642 AD. Having an army of around 6,000 Arab Muslims, General Abdur Rahman bin Samara came from Zaranj to the Zunbil capital Zamindawar. The Arabs went further to Ghazni and Kabul to convert or conquer the Buddhist Shahi rulers.
Nevertheless, according to historians, the rulers of Ghazni and Kabul remained non-Muslim. For the next 200+ years, the Arabs unsuccessfully continued their missions of invading the land to spread Islam. In 870, Muslim invader Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar conquered Afghanistan by establishing Muslim governors throughout the provinces.
Preserving the Cultural Heritage of Afghanistan
On 9 November 2014, Paolo Fontani, Director and Country Representative for UNESCO Kabul office gave a keynote speech at the opening sessions for a series of workshops with the theme, ‘Preserving the Cultural Heritage of Afghanistan’. He was speaking on the topic “Meeting the Challenges of the Past, Present and Future: Towards Safeguarding the Cultural Heritage of Afghanistan’’ in the session on ‘Organizational Frameworks, alongside Deputy Minister Sayed Khalili and Laura Tedesco, representative from the U.S. Department of State.
Condition of minorities in Afghanistan
The number of Hindu and Sikh communities have been dwindling for decades. In 2016, as per an estimate, there were overall only 900 Hindus and Sikhs. In December 2013, the Afghanistan parliament rejected a presidential decision proposing a reserved seat for Hindus and Sikhs. Nevertheless, in what can be termed historic, the previous Afghan government chose a representative from the diminishing Hindu community for the diplomatic rank of ambassador for the first time in 2014.
Nevertheless, despite securing positions in parliament by appointment, Sikhs and Hindus continue to report being pressured to convert. Also, they continue to go through disruptions during funeral and cremation ceremonies by local officials. Socially ostracized, Sikhs living in Kabul witness economic obstacles. Many Afghans refuse to conduct business with them. Also, their lands are grabbed in areas in which Sikhs have historically resided. They also face frequent physical and verbal abuse. Moreover,
freedom to practise their religion has also been curtailed. There used to be a time when Kabul was the abode of eight Sikh places of worship or gurdwaras, however, today only one remains today.
Tourism in Afghanistan
On account of security issues, tourism is not a big industry in Afghanistan. However, as of 2016, more than 20,000 foreign tourists visited the country annually. An essential region for local and global tourism is the picturesque Bamyan Valley. This comprises lakes, canyons and historical sites. The good thing about the place is that it is located in a safe area distant from insurgent activity. Some people visit and trek in areas such as the Wakhan Valley. Afghanistan, from the late 1960s, was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail, tempting many Europeans and Americans. Tourism in Afghanistan was at its peak in 1977, the year before the beginning of political instability and armed conflict.
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