The Earth bears the scars and memories of countless conflicts, each shaping the course of history through victories and losses that transformed power structures, authority, demographics, and the social fabric of nations. The impact of these battles, whether fought on land or at sea, has left a lasting mark on global history, varying in significance across time. The Indian subcontinent, too, has been deeply influenced by monumental battles such as Panipat, Tarain, Haldighati, Plassey, and Buxar.
Naval battles, like the Battle of Midway during World War II, the Battle of Trafalgar in the Napoleonic Wars, and the Battle of Salamis in 480 BC between Greece and Persia, also played crucial roles in reshaping world history. Given the vast expanse of the world’s oceans, sea battles have significantly influenced the development of nations.
What often goes unnoticed in mainstream historical narratives and school textbooks is a crucial chapter from India’s past, one that unfolded at sea, along the coastline, and included intense, pivotal naval battles that altered the country’s fate.
This chapter is epitomized by the "Battle of Diu," also known as the "Second Battle of Chaul," fought on February 3, 1509. In this battle, the Portuguese emerged victorious, securing their dominance over the Indian Ocean for the next century, until other European powers began challenging their so-called “Portuguese Lake.”
The events leading to this fateful confrontation, driven by personal vengeance, greed, and religious fanaticism, not only offer a fascinating glimpse into history but also expose the exploitation of vulnerabilities by imperial forces, particularly in the context of India.
1503: First siege of Cochin
The Portuguese armadas frequently attacked Calicut, targeting its ships and disrupting the city's trade routes. The Zamorin soon realized that opposing the Portuguese fleets at sea was futile, given the technological disparity between the Portuguese vessels equipped with large cannons and the Indian and Arab ships. However, he understood that this advantage did not extend to land. The Portuguese had come for the spices, and the Zamorin deduced that if he could cut off the spice supply by leveraging his influence over the Malabar nations, the Portuguese would either withdraw or be forced into serious negotiations.
In March 1503, shortly after de Gama’s fleet departed, the Zamorin mobilized a formidable force of over 50,000 warriors to march against Cochin, which was a vassal of Calicut. Cochin was a junior branch of the Edapalli kingdom, and the Trimumphara Raja of Cochin was a prince, not an independent monarch, with a distant claim to the Edapalli throne.
The Zamorin sent an ultimatum to the Trimumpara Raja, demanding the surrender of Portuguese traders in the city, given his ability to march such a large army through the region. When the request was denied, the Zamorin ordered an attack. With Calicut's vastly superior forces, including possible reinforcements from Edapalli, Cochin’s small army stood little chance. Nonetheless, Narayan, the son of Trimumpara, led a valiant defense. Cochin managed to hold its ground along the Vembanad coasts, repelling two massive assaults before ultimately succumbing to the overwhelming numbers.
The defenders managed to retreat to Vypin Island, taking the core of the Nair guard with them. Vypin, with its natural defenses and strategic location at the mouth of the Vembanad lagoon, proved to be a difficult stronghold. The weather, however, worsened with the arrival of the Spring monsoon, making the deployment of assault boats nearly impossible. The Zamorin called off the siege but not before setting Cochin ablaze, vowing to return in August when the conditions improved.
In August 1503, Francisco de Albuquerque and Nicolau Coelho, part of the 5th Armada, found the damaged patrol at Angediva (or Cannanore). After repairs, Albuquerque led his fleet south towards Cannanore. Along the way, they were joined by Duarte Pacheco Pereira's ship. By this time, the Zamorin had regrouped and resumed the siege of Cochin, focusing on Vypin Island, as the city had been reduced to ruins.
When Albuquerque learned of the dire situation at Cannanore, he immediately sent his fleet of eight ships to relieve the stronghold. The Portuguese factor Diogo Fernandes Correia and the Trimumpara Raja were once again besieged on Vypin Island. When Francisco de Albuquerque’s fleet arrived, the Calicut forces began to break up.
The Calicut army had lost its local support, as auxiliary forces from Edapalli and other regions likely withdrew in fear of Portuguese reprisal. Realizing the situation was untenable, the Zamorin decided to lift the siege and return to Calicut.
1504: Battle of Cochin
The Portuguese garrison at Cochin, allied with the Trimumpara Raja, clashed with the armies of the Zamorin of Calicut and the vassal Malabari states during the Battle of Cochin, also known as the Second Siege of Cochin, which occurred between March and July of 1504. A Portuguese garrison, vastly outnumbered by a force approximately one hundred times larger, managed to repel the enemy under the leadership of Duarte Pacheco Pereira.
The Zamorin of Calicut suffered a crushing defeat. His inability to overcome such a small opposing force eroded the trust of his allies and vassals, further compounded by his failure to capture Cochin. This resulted in a significant decline in the Zamorin’s influence over the Malabar states, while the Portuguese successfully secured their position in India by holding onto Cochin.
After the 5th Armada departed in late January 1504, the Portuguese began preparations in earnest, despite lacking a fleet. They persuaded the Trimumpara Raja to allow them to construct a fort on the outskirts of the Cochinese peninsula, now known as “Fort Kochi,” located just west of the old city of Cochin (modern-day Mattancherry). Named Fort Manuel de Cochim, it became the first Portuguese fort in Asia. The fort was completed within a few months, constructed using local coconut palm wood provided by the Trimumpara himself.
Calicut’s naval power Vs the Portuguese armada
Albuquerque unexpectedly agreed to a peace treaty with the Zamorin of Calicut, but this agreement was soon broken after a dispute over the delivery of spices in Cranganore. At Fort Manuel in Cochin, the Portuguese left a small garrison of about 150 armed soldiers, commanded by the knight Duarte Pacheco Pereira. Using intelligence networks, Pereira gathered crucial information about the Zamorin's military forces and their movements. The Zamorin commanded an army of 57,000 men in Calicut, along with five large European cannons made by Venetian engineers and approximately 300 smaller Indian weapons.
The Calicut navy consisted of 160 ships, with around 76 being Malabari warships powered by sails and oars. Each of these ships carried 25 archers, five muskets, and two bombards, while smaller boats had 16 soldiers and a gun. As some Cochinese boats began to retreat, panic spread. Soon, the Cochinese boats, carrying 500 Nairs, fled back to Cochin. Only three ships remained to face the Zamorin's forces, along with about 90 Portuguese soldiers and two Cochinese officials.
Pereira’s primary concern was the five Venetian guns along the coast. Most Indian guns were ineffective against the cotton-reinforced Portuguese ships, but the Venetian guns had enough range to cause serious damage. Pereira focused his fire on these guns, scattering the crews and keeping them from regrouping. He also targeted Calicut hatchet crews attempting to dismantle the stockade blocking the ford.
The Calicut navy began to approach the Portuguese position, but successive waves were blocked by Portuguese crossbowmen, musketeers, and gunners. The Malabari gunners and musketeers, lacking adequate protection, were quickly eliminated. After several volleys, four boats were partially sunk, and the remaining boats, heavily damaged or filled with dead and injured, retreated.
The sinking, damaged, and retreating paraus created natural barriers for the advancing Calicut forces, which were disheartening for subsequent waves. By midday, the Calicut commanders ordered a withdrawal. The Calicut forces suffered around 1,300 casualties, while the Portuguese emerged unharmed.
A week later, the Zamorin, busy with reinforcements and ship repairs, opted for a diversion. About 70 Calicut paraus were sent toward Cochin to engage the nau Concepcao, while the main fleet of 150 boats advanced on Kumbalam. The goal was to draw Pereira's small group away from Kumbalam to save Cochin, allowing the army to cross the Kumbalam ford.
Upon learning of this, the Trimumpara Raja sent an urgent message to Pereira, who reached Kumbalam in time to prepare for the approaching fleet. The same scenario from the previous week unfolded, with Calicut paraus being forced into narrow, ineffective waves. After suffering heavy losses—about 290 killed and 19 ships severely damaged—the Calicut fleet withdrew. The diversionary tactic failed.
The next day, Pereira launched a surprise attack on small villages on nearby islands, possibly providing paraus to the Calicut fleet. This action was intended to demoralize the Zamorin’s forces by showing that, despite the previous day’s setbacks, the Portuguese were still capable and ready to fight. The Zamorin changed his tactics, deciding against further fleet assaults and ordering the fleet to wait for shore cannons to weaken the Portuguese ships. However, this also resulted in no casualties for the Portuguese, while the Zamorin lost 22 paraus and about 600 men.
The Portuguese ships began a bombardment from land, but the less skilled battery crews struggled with accuracy, while the Venetian guns had the range to strike the ships. Pereira quickly informed the crews of the situation and urged them to hold fire, hoping the Calicut battery operators would advance their guns for better aim and expose themselves.
By the time the Portuguese stopped firing, the Calicut fleet's commanders assumed the Portuguese were out of ammunition. Taking this as an opportunity, the Calicut fleet moved toward the Portuguese. Pereira waited until the first wave of paraus got close before opening fire at close range, sinking eight paraus in a massive salvo of musket and cannon fire, resulting in heavy casualties. The remaining paraus had advanced too far to retreat, and the first wave was decimated, which was exactly what the Zamorin had hoped to avoid.
Before noon, one of the Portuguese boats caught fire, forcing the crew to divide their attention. The next wave of Calicut paraus focused all their efforts on the burning boat, hoping to disable one of the Portuguese stations. However, the crew managed to repel the attack and extinguish the fire.
1504 Battle of Cochin: Further assaults between the two sides
In late April, the Zamorin dismantled his tent at Kumbalam and began to depart, likely heading back to Calicut. However, Pereira quickly discovered that the Zamorin’s army was actually advancing toward the Palignar-Palurte passes, with over 500 Nairs from his advance forces already on Arraul island, clearing brush to prepare for the army's arrival. In response, the Trimumpara Raja sent approximately 200 Cochinese Nairs from Cochin city to assist, while he hurried to Arraul with a few boats. Upon arrival, he took command of the troops, splitting them into two columns: one led by Pero Rafael, the other by himself. Together, they forced the thicket-cutters to retreat.
A day or two after the battle at Arraul, the Zamorin’s vanguard, about 15,000 infantry under Prince Naubeadarim, arrived at Palignar ford. Meanwhile, the Calicut fleet of around 250 ships, commanded by Lord Ercanol of Edapalli, reached Palurte. Ercanol was tasked with dislodging the two caravels at Palurte, while Naubeadarim aimed to seize control of the ford with his forces. The battle commenced on the morning of May 1st.
Upon reaching Palurte, Pereira observed that the foliage on the opposite banks had been cleared, and several Calicut cannons were being positioned to sink the Portuguese caravels. In response, he ordered concentrated fire from the ships to target the Calicut artillery crews. Pereira then landed an assault force composed of Portuguese and Cochinese soldiers on the shore. They disabled or dragged away the abandoned Calicut cannons and quickly dealt with the remaining Calicut men.
After eliminating the cannon threat, the Portuguese troops returned to the caravels to confront the advancing Calicut fleet. Admiral Ercanol managed to send in a significant first wave of 40 paraus, lined up across the strait, which was wider than at Kumbalam. However, the Portuguese gunners swiftly neutralized this wave. A second wave of similar strength followed but was also repelled.
As the tide began to recede, Ercanol ordered the fleet to retreat, as the Calicut paraus were struggling to navigate the shallow waters of Palurte. Reports soon came in that Naubeadarim’s infantry was preparing to cross the Palignar passage. Pereira and his forces boarded their longboats and returned. Naubeadarim’s column began their assault when the tide had dropped enough, but the relentless fire from the Portuguese bateis and the Cochinese Nairs on the banks prevented them from advancing or reaching the far side.
After two failed attacks, Naubeadarim ordered the infantry to withdraw as the tide began to rise again. The battle at Palignar and Palurte that day was one of the fiercest the Portuguese had faced, with limited time for defense preparation. They managed to escape, though exhausted, with numerous injuries but no fatalities.
The cholera epidemic claimed the lives of over 10,000 troops from the Zamorin’s army. As a result of this victory, some former Cochinese vassals who had previously deserted the Trimumpara Raja returned to his service. On or around May 6th, the Zamorin launched his largest assault to date, focusing all his forces on capturing the ford at Palignar. Leading the charge were around 4,000 men with 30 brass cannons. Prince Naubeadarim commanded a 12,000-man vanguard, followed by the Zamorin with a column of 15,000, which included 400 specialist hatchet workers tasked with clearing the stockade and passages. Meanwhile, Ercanol of Edapalli led another column of 15,000.
Portuguese floating artillery Vs Calicut’s land-based cannons
The land-based Calicut artillery and bateis initiated the cannonade as they launched their attack on Palignar. The Calicut cannons were soon overpowered by the Portuguese artillery, forcing them into disarray. By this time, the tide had receded, and the bateis, now scraping the riverbed, were difficult to maneuver into optimal firing positions. As the Zamorin ordered an advance, the Calicut infantry surged forward to retake the opposite bank.
The spiked planks had the desired impact, forcing the Calicut forces into a dense formation, as the rear ranks pushed forward while the front slowed their advance to maneuver carefully. This compact mass became the target for Portuguese artillery, resulting in devastating casualties among the Calicut ranks. Despite the heavy losses, the Calicut infantry pressed on, spurred by the orders of their commanders.
Pero Rafael used a cannonball to strike down the Zamorin, killing him along with two of the nobles near him. His bodyguards quickly moved the bloodied Zamorin off the field, leaving Naubeadarim and Ercanol to continue the attack. Naubeadarim, fueled by rage over the assassination attempt, rallied the Calicut soldiers and pressed forward with renewed determination. The vanguard, after struggling past the impaling spikes, reached the palisade on the Cochinese bank. Reports indicated that the few Portuguese soldiers there were considered lost, while the Cochinese soldiers guarding the walls retreated or abandoned their positions.
As the tide began to rise again, the bateis were freed from the muck and could maneuver easily. They charged into the ford, disrupting the intense assault on the palisade with concentrated cannon fire. The Calicut forces were forced back to the riverbanks and retreated into the tree line after enduring near-point blank cannon fire. The assault ended when the high tide returned, marking another failure for the Zamorin’s army after nine hours of fierce combat.
At dawn on the day of the sixth attack, the Zamorin's troops began their march toward Palignar. Pereira, too, set out in a boat, landing with a small group of soldiers at Arraul Island to confront the Calicut advance parties. A large portion of the Zamorin's army was diverted by the agitated leader, but Pereira simply returned to his boat and moved on.
The battle began at Palurte, where the caravels were anchored, as the tide was high. The first to advance were the Calicut fire ships, but they were intercepted by the anchored rafts and burned harmlessly. The caravels then moved against the row of floating castles, which proved more challenging due to their reinforced sides. The situation seemed grim, and Pereira was famously heard exclaiming, "Lord, don’t make me pay for my sins just yet," before directing heavy, concentrated fire at the nearest fortress, ultimately shattering its sides. The entire structure soon began to collapse, causing the paraus to sink.
Meanwhile, the tide had turned, and the Zamorin’s army advanced on Palignar ford. As they entered the ford, wave after wave of soldiers were cut down by the relentless fire from the two bateis and the constant missile fire from the Cochinese on the ramparts. The attack was repulsed, and the Calicut soldiers were forced to abandon their attempt at crossing when the high tide returned. This day reportedly saw the highest number of casualties among the Calicut forces, while the Portuguese sustained no fatalities, only injuries. Cochin celebrated its triumph over the Zamorin’s most formidable attack yet.
The Zamorin reportedly ordered a few more attacks on the Portuguese positions, some using the restored floating castles, but to no avail. Disease and defections had reduced the size of his army, and the attacks lacked enthusiasm and energy. The monsoon season had shifted, and the Calicut forces struggled against stronger winds and rains, which hindered their movement and spread disease.
With higher water levels making sailing more difficult, the Calicut vassals began to desert the Zamorin’s camp one by one. By August, a fresh Portuguese armada was expected, and many of the Zamorin’s vassals decided it was wiser to negotiate peace with the Trimumphara Raja before the Portuguese launched retaliatory raids. Lord Elcanol of Edapalli was the final vassal to reach a separate peace with Cochin.
Having had enough, the Zamorin of Calicut abdicated his throne on 24th June 1504, passing it to his nephew and heir, Naubeadarim, the general who had commanded the Calicut forces. He then retreated to a temple, dedicating himself to a life of religion. However, after receiving a reprimand from his mother, the weary Zamorin left the temple and planned one last attack. When it failed, he returned to his religious seclusion for good. The Calicut army withdrew from the Vembanad lagoon shoreline around 3rd July. Duarte Pacheco Pereira set sail for Quilon once the Zamorin withdrew his forces from Cochin, with some accounts claiming he left in early August 1504.
1505: Francisco de Almeida appointed the first Portuguese Viceroy of India
Francisco de Almeida was a Portuguese explorer, soldier, and aristocrat who gained prominence as a counselor to King John II of Portugal. He also played a key role in the Moorish battles and the 1492 conquest of Granada. In 1505, Almeida was appointed as the first viceroy of the Portuguese State of India, commander of the seventh armada, and tasked with protecting Portuguese interests. On March 25, 1505, King Ferdinand I of Portugal named him governor of India for three years and provided him with troops to safeguard Portuguese dominance. Almeida’s mission was to disrupt Muslim trade routes and reinforce Portugal’s presence by capturing key locations, including Aden, Ormuz, and Malacca.
Almeida reached Cochin on October 31, 1505, with only eight ships remaining, after embarking with a powerful fleet of twenty-one ships. He had crossed the Cape of Good Hope, sailed along the east coast of Africa, and seized Kilwa (modern-day Tanzania), where he established a fort. He then devastated Mombasa and continued to India, settling in Cochin, where he constructed multiple fortified installations to control the spice trade and position Portugal as the dominant power in the East. Under his leadership, a business agreement was made with Malacca (modern-day Melaka, Malaysia), and further explorations, particularly by his son Lourenco, were carried out.
While in Cochin, Almeida learned that Portuguese traders at Quilon had been massacred. In retaliation, he sent six ships under his son Lourenco to sink Calicut boats in Quilon’s harbor. Almeida made Cochin his base, strengthening defenses at Fort Manuel. His triumph in the Battle of Diu in 1509 solidified Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean, and in the same year, he became the first Portuguese to reach Bombay by sea.
Almeida pursued the Mamluk Mirocem, who commanded a fleet of 23 ships near Diu, and Meliqueaz, to whom he had sent a menacing letter, during the Battle of Diu on February 3, 1509. With naval assistance from the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik), which were concerned about their eastern trade, Almeida defeated a combined fleet of the Sultan of Gujarat, the Ottoman Empire, the Mamluk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, and the Zamorin of Calicut.
Almeida and his Portuguese fleet were now a threat to Sultan of Egypt too
He was also instructed to fortify Cochin and Anjadiva. However, besides facing opposition from the Zamorin, Almeida found himself threatened by Egypt’s Mamluk Sultan. The disruptions in trade had caused ripples across the Indian Ocean, and Arab powers, including the merchants of Venice who traded with them, were alarmed.
The Venetian merchants, whose profitable trade was now at risk due to Portuguese interference, persuaded the Egyptians to deploy warships in the Red Sea to counter the Portuguese advance. The battles and shifting alliances that followed in the coming years were unlike anything seen before in these regions. The united commercial might of Calicut, Arab traders, the Sultan of Gujarat, and the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt would soon face a naval force stronger than they could have imagined. At the time, no one could have foreseen that the Portuguese ‘Viceroy’ would lead wars that would bring an end to Muslim dominance in the Arabian Sea’s spice trade and pave the way for European monopoly.
1507: Siege of Cannanore (Kannur)
In 1506, a battle took place off the Indian harbor of Cannanore (now Kannur) between the Portuguese fleet, led by Lourenco de Almeida, the son of Viceroy Almeida, and the Indian fleet of the Zamorin of Calicut. The Calicut navy, manned by Hindu, Arab, and Turkish crews, consisted of approximately 200 ships armed with cannons, aided by two Milanese Italians. Despite this formidable force, the Portuguese emerged victorious, paving the way for the siege of Cannanore in 1507.
The conflict between the Portuguese admiral Pedro Alvares Cabral and the Zamorin of Calicut began in early 1501. However, the King of Cannanore persuaded the Portuguese to focus on trading in his spice markets instead. In 1502, treaties were signed, and a Portuguese crown factory was built, protected by a simple palisade. Later, in late 1505, Almeida, the first Portuguese viceroy of India, received permission to construct the stone fortress of St. Santo Angelo in Cannanore. D. Lourenco de Brito was assigned to command the 150-man garrison stationed there.
In 1506, the death of the elderly Kolathiri Raja, who had sought an alliance with the Portuguese, led to a succession dispute. The Zamorin of Calicut, the suzerain of the Kerala coast, appointed an arbitrator to resolve the matter. The new Kolathiri Raja of Cannanore was less inclined toward the Portuguese and more indebted to the Zamorin.
Tensions escalated when the Portuguese sank an Indian ship and killed its crew for failing to carry the required Cartaz, a pass imposed on all ships in the region. This act of aggression angered the people of Kolattunad, who called upon their king, the Kolathiri, to launch an attack on the Portuguese.
On 27th April 1507, the siege of Cannanore began, with an expected duration of four months. The attacking forces, numbering 40,000 Nayars, were supported by 20,000 auxiliary troops and 21 pieces of artillery from the Zamorin. However, under Lourenco de Brito’s leadership, the Portuguese garrison held firm, repelling the attacks with their superior weaponry. Despite the enemy using cotton bales to shield their trenches and their slow starvation, the siege stalled. On 15th August, a surprising tidal surge of lobsters washed ashore, saving the defenders.
Just before the Onam festival, the siege nearly resulted in the fall of the fortress, but a fleet of 11 Portuguese ships, led by Tristao da Cunha, arrived on 27th August, turning the tide of the battle. With 300 reinforcements, the siege was lifted, and the castle was relieved. Peace negotiations between the Portuguese and the Kolathiri Raja ensured that the Portuguese would maintain their presence in Cannanore and retain access to its spice markets.
The Portuguese struggled in the East primarily because they lacked the goods the Indians desired. Already wealthy from their trade networks with Muslim traders in the Persian Gulf and East Africa, the Portuguese were reluctant to disrupt these peaceful exchanges. Their goal was not simply trade, but a monopoly and the spread of Christendom.
Additionally, trade ships in the Indian Ocean region were designed for speed and cargo, built to withstand the Monsoon winds. The Portuguese Carracks, with their heavy cannons, presented a surprising challenge, as most Arab traders and Indian monarchs had less effective artillery.
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